Introducing some of Canada’s “First Nations” Part 1: The Beothuks

In this article and the following ones, I want to basically introduce you to some of the many First Nations of Canada which number in an average of 93 different tribes. Some of the smaller tribes are assembled together into a larger denominational tribe and their languages but they still maintained their authenticity. So please read on and I apologize in advance if I made any typo errors as some of the names of these tribes are totally unknown to me and I just might have misspelled them (at least I hope not). The tribes that I will introduce you to are based upon their general provincial areas of living areas. Of course before the French and the English, there were no such thing as provinces but rather there were territories which overlap the provincial borders of today and also even went as far below as the United States’ mostly upper northern borders.

In Canada, the term ” Aboriginals ” refer to the First Nations people, the Metis (a mixture of European ancestors and aboriginals) and Inuits (who live in the Arctic region of Northern Canada). The First Nations are the original inhabitants of what is known today as Canada. In 2011, more than 1,4 million people identified themselves as First Nations indigenous nationality. Despite many threats – and in some cases extinction – by colonial forces, diseases, wars etc., Aboriginal culture, languages and social system have shaped the development of Canada and continue to prosper and grow despite adversity.

The First Nation that I want to present today does not exist anymore. They were known as the Beothuks or Beothucks and inhabited Newfoundland on the east coast of Canada during the European contact in the fifteenth century. The Beothuks were officially considered extinguished as a distinct ethnic group in 1829 with the death of Shanawdithit, the last listed surviving member of the tribe. The picture above is apparently of Shanawdithit as indicated in the Library of Archives Canada / e010985291.

The language of the Beothuks also known as “beothukan” which is classified as an Algonquin-type language also disappeared in 1829. It is only known through three lists of words collected between 1791 and 1828 which included a total of 325 words but with no specific syntax attached to them. The Beothuks were closely related and in frequent contact with the Micmacs First Nation tribe. In fact, the Micmac often recount old Beothuks tales and events to this day.

The Beothuk people believed in the existence of a “Great Spirit”, the supernatural and life after death. Figurines and wooden carved sticks were considered representations of mythological spirits and concepts. According the legend, the Beothuks would have appeared when they jumped out of several arrows planted in the ground. The dead were especially respected by the Beothuks. They wrapped them in “machecoui” (birch bark) and buried them, often in a particular place on the coast. The men were buried with their weapons and other personal items, the women simply wearing their clothes.

The Beothuk society was mostly patriarchal, but a lot of respect was given to women. While there was no clear division of duties, hunting was considered a male occupation only. Monogamous marriages were celebrated for more than 24 hours. Private property, including weapons and certain foods was recognized along with the chief of the family tribe. Although the Beothuks often stole from Europeans, they were aware that it was a crime. Many were, in fact, severely punished: the adulterers were burned alive and fugitives of other crimes risked death.

According to contemporary observations, the Beothuks hunted, foraged and fished from their coastal settlements for most of the year. Birds and small animals were trapped or hunted by means of bows; the largest animals hunted with spears while seals and sometimes whales were hunted with harpoons. Molluscs, roots, the inner part of some bark and eggs supplemented the diet. Supplies of these foods were always made and preserved for the winter season. The meat was eaten boiled or roasted. During the winter, the caribou were trapped in fences along the Exploits River. The meat was then smoked and stored in “machecoui” containers deposited in snow banks or wells.

During summer, the Beothuks resided in conical wigwams, often grouped by two or three. The walls were made of several layers of “machecoui” supported by poles inside and outside. A hole at the top allowed smoke from the hearth to escape from the fire which they started by hitting pieces of pyrite together. The dried food was probably stored on high platforms. The entrance was closed by a caribou skin. The beds were placed in pits dug into the ground, a practice peculiar to the Beothuks. Winter wigwams or “Mamateek” were octagonal in shape and covered with earth to improve insulation. These wigwams were larger and could shelter from twelve to thirteen persons.

The Beothuks had also what we consider to be warehouses. They had conical roofs and their walls were isolated with caribou skins. A fireplace was located in the center of the building and a hole in the roof allowed for the smoke evacuation. Then storage areas were dug into the ground and covered with “machecoui”, scaffolds were erected to dry the salmon and store the bones of the caribou retained for their marrow and canoe racks completed the facilities.

Sweat lodges (almost like a sauna) were fitted out in hemispherical constructions covered with skins where water was poured over hot stones provided steam. Diseases were always treated in a sweat lodge accompanied by incantations.

The most distinctive feature of the Beothuk people was their use of crushed red ochre mixed with oil and fat. The natives put this in their hair, on their bodies, their clothes and weapons. This is probably where the first name of the Indian Nations came as “Red Skins”.

The Beothuks liked to use the technologies brought by the Europeans but never used firearms. Javelins, axes, knives, bows and clubs were used both for hunting and for weapons. They generally traveled on foot and used snowshoes and sleds during the winter. Animal carcasses were kept in larges packages of “machecoui” and rafts were kept at the river’s edge. The canoes were more than 6 meters long and when fitted with a keel and a ballast could be used to move on the high seas. “Machecoui”, a very versatile birch bark was used to make pots, baskets and seals. Tendons of animals and soft roots were used as strings or laces.

The Beothuks avoided as much as possible any contacts with the Vikings in the first place and then the Europeans although they enjoyed what these latter brought with them. Despite this, they were hunted and often brought to Europe to become slaves or to entertain the European crowds. In addition, the Beothuks had no immunity to European diseases such as smallpox, tick-vector diseases, typhoid fever, measles and chickenpox. Thus, being in small numbers to begin with, they were eventually decimated and the last survivor died of tuberculosis 1829.